Training Practices of Football Players During the Early COVID-19 Lockdown Worldwide.

The COVID-19 lockdown challenged the training options of athletes worldwide, including players from the most popular sport globally, football/soccer. PURPOSE: The authors explored the training practices of football players worldwide during the COVID-19 lockdown. METHODS: Football players (N = 2482, 30% professional, 22% semipro, and 48% amateur) completed an online survey (May-July 2020) on their training practices before versus during lockdown (March-June 2020). Questions were related to training frequency and session duration, as well as training knowledge and attitudes. RESULTS: Before lockdown, more professional (87%) than semipro (67%) and amateur (65%) players trained ≥5 sessions/wk, but this proportion decreased during the lockdown to 55%, 35%, and 42%, respectively. Players (80%-87%) trained ≥60 minutes before lockdown, but this proportion decreased to 45% in professionals, 43% in amateurs, and 36% in semipros during lockdown. At home, more than two-thirds of players had training space (73%) and equipment (66%) for cardiorespiratory training, while availability of equipment for technical and strength training was <50% during lockdown. Interactions between coach/trainer and player were more frequent (ie, daily) among professional (27%) than amateur (11%) and semipro (17%) players. Training load monitoring, albeit limited, was mostly performed by fitness coaches, more so with professionals (35%) than amateurs (13%) and semipros (17%). The players' training knowledge and attitudes/beliefs toward training were relatively modest (50%-59%). CONCLUSION: COVID-19 lockdown negatively affected training practices of football players worldwide, especially amateurs and semipros, for example, in training frequency, duration, intensity, technical, recovery, and other fitness training and coaching-related aspects. During lockdown-like situations, players should be monitored closely and provided appropriate support to facilitate their training.

Ramadan intermittent fasting induced poorer training practices during the COVID-19 lockdown: A global cross-sectional study with 5529 athletes from 110 countries.

Ramadan intermittent fasting during the COVID-19 lockdown (RIFL) may present unique demands. We investigated training practices (i.e., training load and training times) of athletes, using pre-defined survey criteria/questions, during the 'first' COVID-19 lockdown, comparing RIFL to lockdown-alone (LD) in Muslim athletes. Specifically, a within-subject, survey-based study saw athletes (n = 5,529; from 110 countries/territories) training practices (comparing RIFL to LD) explored by comparative variables of: sex; age; continent; athlete classification (e.g., world-class); sport classification (e.g., endurance); athlete status (e.g., professional); and level of training knowledge and beliefs/attitudes (ranked as: good/moderate/poor). During RIFL (compared to LD), athlete perceptions (ranges presented given variety of comparative variables) of their training load decreased (46-62%), were maintained (31-48%) or increased (2-13%). Decreases (≥ 5%, p < 0.05) affected more athletes aged 30-39 years than those 18-29 years (60 vs 55%); more national than international athletes (59 vs 51%); more team sports than precision sports (59 vs 46%); more North American than European athletes (62 vs 53%); more semi-professional than professional athletes (60 vs 54%); more athletes who rated their beliefs/attitudes 'good' compared to 'poor' and 'moderate' (61 vs 54 and 53%, respectively); and more athletes with 'moderate' than 'poor' knowledge (58 vs 53%). During RIFL, athletes had different strategies for training times, with 13-29% training twice a day (i.e., afternoon and night), 12-26% at night only, and 18-36% in the afternoon only, with ranges depending on the comparative variables. Training loads and activities were altered negatively during RIFL compared to LD. It would be prudent for decision-makers responsible for RIFL athletes to develop programs to support athletes during such challenges.

Football in Times of COVID-19: A Recapitulation of Preventive Measures and Infection Control Policies Aiming at a Safe Game Environment.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) resulted in sporting event suspensions and cancellations, affecting competition calendars worldwide during 2020 and 2021. This challenged high-performance athletes' capacity to complete physical, technical, or tactical training during restricted movement measures (lockdown). With the Football World Cup organized in the last quarter of 2022, the past period of training and match disturbances challenged footballers concerning their performance and potential higher risk of injury at official matches' resumption. There has been considerable debate about the management of resuming professional football (soccer) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Governing bodies worldwide implemented measures to ensure a safe resumption of football. These precautionary measures aimed to protect the health of players, their support staff, and officials around the pitch and ensure the enjoyment of the event by spectators in the football stadiums. We have therefore narratively reviewed scientific papers about how football has resumed on the pitch and in the stands with special focus on the COVID-19 infection control strategies allowing footballers to perform again and supporters to enjoy the game after the 2020 global stop to sport.

COVID-19 Lockdown: A Global Study Investigating the Effect of Athletes' Sport Classification and Sex on Training Practices.

PURPOSE: To investigate differences in athletes' knowledge, beliefs, and training practices during COVID-19 lockdowns with reference to sport classification and sex. This work extends an initial descriptive evaluation focusing on athlete classification. METHODS: Athletes (12,526; 66% male; 142 countries) completed an online survey (May-July 2020) assessing knowledge, beliefs, and practices toward training. Sports were classified as team sports (45%), endurance (20%), power/technical (10%), combat (9%), aquatic (6%), recreational (4%), racquet (3%), precision (2%), parasports (1%), and others (1%). Further analysis by sex was performed. RESULTS: During lockdown, athletes practiced body-weight-based exercises routinely (67% females and 64% males), ranging from 50% (precision) to 78% (parasports). More sport-specific technical skills were performed in combat, parasports, and precision (∼50%) than other sports (∼35%). Most athletes (range: 50% [parasports] to 75% [endurance]) performed cardiorespiratory training (trivial sex differences). Compared to prelockdown, perceived training intensity was reduced by 29% to 41%, depending on sport (largest decline: ∼38% in team sports, unaffected by sex). Some athletes (range: 7%-49%) maintained their training intensity for strength, endurance, speed, plyometric, change-of-direction, and technical training. Athletes who previously trained ≥5 sessions per week reduced their volume (range: 18%-28%) during lockdown. The proportion of athletes (81%) training ≥60 min/session reduced by 31% to 43% during lockdown. Males and females had comparable moderate levels of training knowledge (56% vs 58%) and beliefs/attitudes (54% vs 56%). CONCLUSIONS: Changes in athletes' training practices were sport-specific, with few or no sex differences. Team-based sports were generally more susceptible to changes than individual sports. Policy makers should provide athletes with specific training arrangements and educational resources to facilitate remote and/or home-based training during lockdown-type events.

Ramadan Observance Exacerbated the Negative Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on Sleep and Training Behaviors: A International Survey on 1,681 Muslim Athletes.

Objective: Disrupted sleep and training behaviors in athletes have been reported during the COVID-19 pandemic. We aimed at investigating the combined effects of Ramadan observance and COVID-19 related lockdown in Muslim athletes. Methods: From an international sample of athletes (n = 3,911), 1,681 Muslim athletes (from 44 countries; 25.1 ± 8.7 years, 38% females, 41% elite, 51% team sport athletes) answered a retrospective, cross-sectional questionnaire relating to their behavioral habits pre- and during- COVID-19 lockdown, including: (i) Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI); (ii) insomnia severity index (ISI); (iii) bespoke questions about training, napping, and eating behaviors, and (iv) questions related to training and sleep behaviors during-lockdown and Ramadan compared to lockdown outside of Ramadan. The survey was disseminated predominately through social media, opening 8 July and closing 30 September 2020. Results: The lockdown reduced sleep quality and increased insomnia severity (both p < 0.001). Compared to non-Muslim (n = 2,230), Muslim athletes reported higher PSQI and ISI scores during-lockdown (both p < 0.001), but not pre-lockdown (p > 0.05). Muslim athletes reported longer (p < 0.001; d = 0.29) and later (p < 0.001; d = 0.14) daytime naps, and an increase in late-night meals (p < 0.001; d = 0.49) during- compared to pre-lockdown, associated with lower sleep quality (all p < 0.001). Both sleep quality (χ2 = 222.6; p < 0.001) and training volume (χ2 = 342.4; p < 0.001) were lower during-lockdown and Ramadan compared to lockdown outside of Ramadan in the Muslims athletes. Conclusion: Muslim athletes reported lower sleep quality and higher insomnia severity during- compared to pre-lockdown, and this was exacerbated by Ramadan observance. Therefore, further attention to Muslim athletes is warranted when a circadian disrupter (e.g., lockdown) occurs during Ramadan.

Lockdown Duration and Training Intensity Affect Sleep Behavior in an International Sample of 1,454 Elite Athletes.

Objective: To investigate the effect of 1) lockdown duration and 2) training intensity on sleep quality and insomnia symptoms in elite athletes. Methods: 1,454 elite athletes (24.1 ± 6.7 years; 42% female; 41% individual sports) from 40 countries answered a retrospective, cross-sectional, web-based questionnaire relating to their behavioral habits pre- and during- COVID-19 lockdown, including: 1) Pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI); 2) Insomnia severity index (ISI); bespoke questions about 3) napping; and 4) training behaviors. The association between dependent (PSQI and ISI) and independent variables (sleep, napping and training behaviors) was determined with multiple regression and is reported as semi-partial correlation coefficient squared (in percentage). Results: 15% of the sample spent < 1 month, 27% spent 1-2 months and 58% spent > 2 months in lockdown. 29% self-reported maintaining the same training intensity during-lockdown whilst 71% reduced training intensity. PSQI (4.1 ± 2.4 to 5.8 ± 3.1; mean difference (MD): 1.7; 95% confidence interval of the difference (95% CI): 1.6-1.9) and ISI (5.1 ± 4.7 to 7.7 ± 6.4; MD: 2.6; 95% CI: 2.3-2.9) scores were higher during-compared to pre-lockdown, associated (all p < 0.001) with longer sleep onset latency (PSQI: 28%; ISI: 23%), later bedtime (PSQI: 13%; ISI: 14%) and later preferred time of day to train (PSQI: 9%; ISI: 5%) during-lockdown. Those who reduced training intensity during-lockdown showed higher PSQI (p < 0.001; MD: 1.25; 95% CI: 0.87-1.63) and ISI (p < 0.001; MD: 2.5; 95% CI: 1.72-3.27) scores compared to those who maintained training intensity. Although PSQI score was not affected by the lockdown duration, ISI score was higher in athletes who spent > 2 months confined compared to those who spent < 1 month (p < 0.001; MD: 1.28; 95% CI: 0.26-2.3). Conclusion: Reducing training intensity during the COVID-19-induced lockdown was associated with lower sleep quality and higher insomnia severity in elite athletes. Lockdown duration had further disrupting effects on elite athletes' sleep behavior. These findings could be of relevance in future lockdown or lockdown-like situations (e.g., prolonged illness, injury, and quarantine after international travel).

Influence of COVID-19 Restrictions on Training and Physiological Characteristics in U23 Elite Cyclists.

PURPOSE: The COVID-19 pandemic and its associated mobility restrictions caused many athletes to adjust or reduce their usual training load. The aim of this study was to investigate how the COVID-19 restrictions affected training and performance physiology measures in U23 elite cyclists. METHODS: Twelve U23 elite cyclists (n = 12) participated in this study (mean ± SD: Age 21.2 ± 1.2 years; height 182.9 ± 4.7 cm; body mass 71.4 ± 6.5 kg). Training characteristics were assessed between 30 days pre, during, and post COVID-19 restrictions, respectively. The physiological assessment in the laboratory was 30 days pre and post COVID-19 restrictions and included maximum oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), peak power output for sprint (SprintPmax), and ramp incremental graded exercise (GXTPmax), as well as power output at ventilatory threshold (VT) and respiratory compensation point (RCP). RESULTS: Training load characteristics before, during, and after the lockdown remained statistically unchanged (p > 0.05) despite large effects (>0.8) with mean reductions of 4.7 to 25.0% during COVID-19 restrictions. There were no significant differences in maximal and submaximal power outputs, as well as relative and absolute V̇O2max between pre and post COVID-19 restrictions (p > 0.05) with small to moderate effects. DISCUSSION: These results indicate that COVID-19 restrictions did not negatively affect training characteristics and physiological performance measures in U23 elite cyclists for a period of <30 days. In contrast with recent reports on professional cyclists and other elite level athletes, these findings reveal that as long as athletes are able to maintain and/or slightly adapt their training routine, physiological performance variables remain stable.

COVID-19 Lockdowns: A Worldwide Survey of Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Quality in 3911 Athletes from 49 Countries, with Data-Driven Recommendations.

OBJECTIVE: In a convenience sample of athletes, we conducted a survey of COVID-19-mediated lockdown (termed 'lockdown' from this point forward) effects on: (i) circadian rhythms; (ii) sleep; (iii) eating; and (iv) training behaviors. METHODS: In total, 3911 athletes [mean age: 25.1 (range 18-61) years, 1764 female (45%), 2427 team-sport (63%) and 1442 elite (37%) athletes] from 49 countries completed a multilingual cross-sectional survey including the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and Insomnia Severity Index questionnaires, alongside bespoke questions about napping, training, and nutrition behaviors. RESULTS: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (4.3 ± 2.4 to 5.8 ± 3.1) and Insomnia Severity Index (4.8 ± 4.7 to 7.2 ± 6.4) scores increased from pre- to during lockdown (p < 0.001). Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index was predominantly influenced by sleep-onset latency (p < 0.001; + 29.8%), sleep efficiency (p < 0.001; - 21.1%), and total sleep time (p < 0.001; - 20.1%), whilst Insomnia Severity Index was affected by sleep-onset latency (p < 0.001; + 21.4%), bedtime (p < 0.001; + 9.4%), and eating after midnight (p < 0.001; + 9.1%). During lockdown, athletes reported fewer training sessions per week (- 29.1%; d = 0.99). Athletes went to bed (+ 75 min; 5.4%; d = 1.14) and woke up (+ 150 min; 34.5%; d = 1.71) later during lockdown with an increased total sleep time (+ 48 min; 10.6%; d = 0.83). Lockdown-mediated circadian disruption had more deleterious effects on the sleep quality of individual-sport athletes compared with team-sport athletes (p < 0.001; d = 0.41), elite compared with non-elite athletes (p = 0.028; d = 0.44) and older compared with younger (p = 0.008; d = 0.46) athletes. CONCLUSIONS: These lockdown-induced behavioral changes reduced sleep quality and increased insomnia in athletes. Data-driven and evidence-based recommendations to counter these include, but are not limited to: (i) early outdoor training; (ii) regular meal scheduling (whilst avoiding meals prior to bedtime and caffeine in the evening) with appropriate composition; (iii) regular bedtimes and wake-up times; and (iv) avoidance of long and/or late naps.

Training During the COVID-19 Lockdown: Knowledge, Beliefs, and Practices of 12,526 Athletes from 142 Countries and Six Continents.

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to explore the training-related knowledge, beliefs, and practices of athletes and the influence of lockdowns in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). METHODS: Athletes (n = 12,526, comprising 13% world class, 21% international, 36% national, 24% state, and 6% recreational) completed an online survey that was available from 17 May to 5 July 2020 and explored their training behaviors (training knowledge, beliefs/attitudes, and practices), including specific questions on their training intensity, frequency, and session duration before and during lockdown (March-June 2020). RESULTS: Overall, 85% of athletes wanted to "maintain training," and 79% disagreed with the statement that it is "okay to not train during lockdown," with a greater prevalence for both in higher-level athletes. In total, 60% of athletes considered "coaching by correspondence (remote coaching)" to be sufficient (highest amongst world-class athletes). During lockdown, < 40% were able to maintain sport-specific training (e.g., long endurance [39%], interval training [35%], weightlifting [33%], plyometric exercise [30%]) at pre-lockdown levels (higher among world-class, international, and national athletes), with most (83%) training for "general fitness and health maintenance" during lockdown. Athletes trained alone (80%) and focused on bodyweight (65%) and cardiovascular (59%) exercise/training during lockdown. Compared with before lockdown, most athletes reported reduced training frequency (from between five and seven sessions per week to four or fewer), shorter training sessions (from ≥ 60 to < 60 min), and lower sport-specific intensity (~ 38% reduction), irrespective of athlete classification. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19-related lockdowns saw marked reductions in athletic training specificity, intensity, frequency, and duration, with notable within-sample differences (by athlete classification). Higher classification athletes had the strongest desire to "maintain" training and the greatest opposition to "not training" during lockdowns. These higher classification athletes retained training specificity to a greater degree than others, probably because of preferential access to limited training resources. More higher classification athletes considered "coaching by correspondence" as sufficient than did lower classification athletes. These lockdown-mediated changes in training were not conducive to maintenance or progression of athletes' physical capacities and were also likely detrimental to athletes' mental health. These data can be used by policy makers, athletes, and their multidisciplinary teams to modulate their practice, with a degree of individualization, in the current and continued pandemic-related scenario. Furthermore, the data may drive training-related educational resources for athletes and their multidisciplinary teams. Such upskilling would provide athletes with evidence to inform their training modifications in response to germane situations (e.g., COVID related, injury, and illness).

Heart Rate Variability in Elite Swimmers before, during and after COVID-19 Lockdown: A Brief Report on Time Domain Analysis

Background: Many athletes worldwide have endured home confinement during the COVID-19 pandemic, and their opportunities to train were strongly limited. This study describes the impact of lockdown on training volume and heart rate variability (HRV) in elite swimmers. Methods: HRV data of seven elite males were collected each Monday morning over 20 weeks, including 8 weeks of lockdown. The training volume was quantified retrospectively. Results: During the lockdown period (weeks 4–11) swimming was not allowed, and the total training volume was reduced by 55.2 ± 7.5% compared to the baseline volume (from 27.2 to 12.2 training hours). This drop was associated with a decrease in vagal activity (a 9.2 ± 5.4% increase in resting HR and a 6.5 ± 3.4% decrease in the natural logarithm of rMSSD from baseline values). After the lockdown (weeks 12–20), the training volume was gradually increased before attaining 68.8% and 88.2% of the baseline training volume at weeks 15 and 17, respectively. Resting HR and Ln rMSSD returned to baseline values four weeks after the lockdown. Conclusions: The lockdown period induced a decreased training volume which was associated with a decrease in vagal activity. However, HRV values returned to the baseline 4 weeks after the resumption of swimming training.

Impact of COVID-19 on Swimming Training: Practical Recommendations during Home Confinement/Isolation.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had severe effects on communities globally, leading to significant restrictions on all aspects of society, including in sports. Several significant decisions were made to postpone or cancel major swimming events by FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation). Swimmers were no longer allowed to continue their usual training in swimming pools and were confined to their homes. These unusual circumstances may represent a good opportunity to strengthen different areas of swimmer preparation and potentially enhance performance when resuming regular aquatic training. We searched major databases for relevant information, and the present article provides practical information on home-based training for swimmers of all ages. The COVID-19 crisis and its consequences on the swimming community have created a myriad of challenges for swimmers around the world, including maintaining their fitness level and preparing to return optimally and safely to pool training and competitions. Unfortunately, the mental consequences that might arise after the pandemic may also have an impact. We strongly recommend encouraging the swimmers to consider quarantine as an opportunity for development in specific areas of preparation and learn how to best cope with this special situation of self-isolation and/or "physical distancing" for their mental health and in case a similar situation is faced again in the future.